Similarly, Bandura’s (1977 cited in Searle et al., 1995) social learning theory, regarded personal competence to be primary motivator of an individual’s behaviour. Bandura postulated that learnt social behaviour was linked to an individual’s perception of their efficacy and or mastery. In relation to leisure, Witt, Ellis and Niles (1984) stated that if an individual feels competent in a variety of leisure skills, leisure functioning is more likely to be successful.

Iso-Ahola (1980) further suggested that an individual must experience a degree of perceived competence to feel free while participating in a leisure activity. To substantiate the importance of perceived competence, several research studies have been conducted. Lee and Halberg’s (1989) study of subjects who were classified as shy, found a strong correlation between low social confidence and low perceptions of leisure competence. Searle, Mahon, Iso-Ahola, Sdrolias and Dyck’s (1995) field experiment with elderly subjects, found that their experimental group’s level of perceived competence increased after participating in an intervening leisure education program. Additionally, Csikszentmihalyi, Larson And Prescott’s (1977) self reporting beeper study of adolescent subjects found that the most enjoyable forms of leisure were strongly associated with high feelings of perceived competence.

Perceived control is linked closely to locus of control as identified by Rotter’s (1966 cited in Hoffs & Ellis, 1990) social learning theory. This theory postulates that an individual’s locus of control relates to the extent to which they internally perceives their actions, and the outcome of their actions to be self determined. Thus high locus of control equates with the perception that through people’s own effort or ability, they can determine the outcomes of their lives, whereas low locus of control equates with the perception that chance, fate and luck control the outcome of their lives.

According to several authors, the restoration of perceived control can have a significant impact upon an individual’s level of physical and psychological wellbeing (Witt, Ellis & Niles, 1984; Langer, 1983; Rodin, 1986). Research conducted by Langer and Rodin (1976 cited in Iso-Ahola, 1980) on ambulatory adult nursing home residents found that increased activeness, interpersonal activity, mental alertness and psychological wellbeing were among the benefits attributable to enhanced personal control. Similarly, research conducted by Kurtz and Propst (1991) on older adults, found that higher levels of life satisfaction resulted from engagement in freely chosen social activities. Similarly, Coleman and Iso-Ahola (1993) reported that the psychological and physical health of nursing home patients was significantly improved by enhanced perceived control and freedom. In addition, Deci and Ryan (1987) and Coleman (1990, cited in Pegg, 1994) found that a greater sense of control over one’s life significantly correlated with a decreased rate of illness and better health. That is, the incidence of illness amongst those subjects who had experienced heightened levels of perceived control was much lower than that of those who had experienced control diminution due to the imposition of life event stressor. To improve the ability to cope with such stressors, Iso-Ahola (1993) cited leisure participation. The potential benefits of engagement in leisure are twofold. Firstly, for companionship as friendship and social networks can be fostered or developed, and secondly, an individuals' level of self determination or control is likely to be enhanced (Iso-Ahola,1993).

Prior to individuals attaining leisure competence and control, Iso-Ahola (1980) identified two prominent determinants of leisure socialisation. The first of these determinants are internally imposed, such as an individual's repertoire of experiences, and the second being externally imposed, which include social agents such as the individuals' family or peer group. In addition, leisure socialisation was found to be a two way process that is subject to continual modification. This continual modification can be attributed to the ever changing influences exerted by the individual upon others, and visa versa.

The notion that social agents influence an individual's level of perceived competence and control is supported by several authors (Searle et al., 1995; Lee & Halberg, 1989; Iso-Ahola & Manell, 1985; Iso-Ahola, 1980; London, Crandall & Fitzgibbons, 1977; Kelly, 1978). Social agents are defined as the people who exert significant influence over the personal development of an individual such as the family and peer (Iso-Ahola, 1980). According to Iso-Ahola (1980), the family exerts the greatest influence over the development of a child’s leisure participation patterns. Iso-Ahola (1980) concluded that parental encouragement to participate in certain leisure activities correlated strongly with the actual leisure behaviour and subsequent level of psychological wellbeing of a child. In addition, he further suggested that there is a significant link between early childhood play experiences and adult leisure behaviour (Iso-Ahola, 1980). In terms of the social agents which influence the development of adolescent and young adult leisure behaviour, several authors have identified the peer group to be the most important (Iso-Ahola, 1980; Csikszentmihalyi, Larson & Prescott, 1977). According to Iso-Ahola (1980), feedback from the peer group about leisure performance directly affects an individual's level of perceived competence, control and ability to socialise. Spreitzer and Snyder (1976, cited in Iso-Ahola, 1980) also supported this claim by postulating that the experiences accumulated during significant life stages of development and socialisation have a direct effect upon the individual's level of perceived competence and control.

According to Witt and Ellis (1989), an individual's level of leisure functioning (that is their perception of leisure and the subsequent participatory behaviour) is related to the ability to engage in leisure activities which provide the individual with the most benefit. Bearing this in mind, if an individual is to experience heightened levels of leisure functioning, they also need to perceive themselves to be competent in a range of leisure activities. The culminate effect of heightened leisure functioning according to Witt and Ellis (1989) is the development of a positive self concept for the individual; an enhanced ability to be creative and learn; physical, psychological and social growth; and improved psychological health. Alternatively, if individuals perceive themselves to be incompetent or controlled in leisure settings, the corresponding level of leisure functioning is likely to be substantially lower. This diminution of perceived competence, control and leisure functioning can culminate into the psychological state known as helplessness. Seligman (1975, cited in Iso-Ahola, 1980, p.120) defined helplessness as the "psychological state that frequently results when events and behaviours are uncontrollable". The symptoms of helplessness include increased passivity, a lack of desire to participate in leisure activities, apathy, depression, chronic boredom, the loss of self esteem, and anti-social acts (Ellis & Niles, 1985; Iso-Ahola, 1980).

To better understand the causes of helplessness, it is important to identify a societal group which has been directly affected by this process. According to Patterson (1992), Ellis and Niles (1985), and Iso-Ahola (1980), people with disabilities are one such group. To a large extent, the feelings of helplessness experienced by this group can be attributed in part to the "wounding" practices imposed by society (Wolfensberger cited in Thompson, 1990). These include the negative attitudes held by social agents towards physical and intellectual inability and difference, segregation and labelling (Thompson, 1990; Austin, 1987; Iso-Ahola, 1980; Yucker, 1977).

The eventual outcome of these "wounding" practices is that people with disabilities are likely to experience a sense of separateness from society (Thompson, 1990; Howe-Murphy & Charboneau, 1987), a limited scope for personal growth and challenge, high dependency, feelings of being controlled, isolation, boredom and restricted freedom of choice (Thompson, 1990), a lack motivation resulting in feeling of inferiority (Howe-Murphy & Charboneau, 1987), and feelings of incompetence (Iso-Ahola, 1980). In addition, Yuker (1977) believed that these wounding practices have deprived many people with disabilities of the opportunity to develop the same interests and learn about the same things as non-disabled peers. As a consequence, this lack of interest sharing and skill has resulted in an inability for either party to relate effectively. From another perspective, Austin (1987) believed that these "wounding practices" reinforce the broader community’s feelings of uneasiness and uncertainty about interaction with the "disabled community". In an effort to assist in the psychological and social restoration of people with disabilities, it is necessary to investigate their potential for leisure intervention.

In support of this statement, McCain (1989) and Newton (1986) stated that participation in leisure activities helped people with disabilities to shift from a state of dependence to one of independence, to develop greater self confidence, high self esteem and greater acceptance within other social groups. Research conducted by Hearst (1987), Hawkins and Freeman (1993), and Schleien and Ray (1987) further support these statements, however they further emphasise that individuals can attain their fullest potential and integrate more successfully through leisure experiences in the community.

Several authors have identified social interaction to be one of the major components that contribute to the enjoyment of leisure (Iso-Ahola & Manell, 1985; London, Crandall & Fitzgibbons, 1977; Kelly, 1978). In the case of persons with a severe physical disability, several authors also consider the satisfaction derived from participating in socially supported leisure activities to be a vital facet in their psychological adjustment (Kinney & Coyle, 1992; Krause, 1990; Krause & Crewe, 1987, cited in Shewchuk & Elliott, 1995). Shewchuk and Elliott (1995) substantiated these comments with the findings of their study into the mediating effects of depression on the association between social support and leisure activities among men with severe physical disabilities, such as spinal injuries. They found that higher levels of leisure participation were significantly associated with greater satisfaction with intimate social relationships, and that levels of depression were directly predictive of leisure activity satisfaction.

According to Elliot (1987), and Yuker (1977) the first measure that needs to be implemented to reverse the previously identified "wounding" practices is to integrate people with disabilities through leisure participation in the community. Condeluci (1991, cited in Searle et al., 1995) further stated that the interdependent nature of many leisure activities is conducive to the mutual acceptance and respect of people with and without disabilities. Based on these statements, Roarty (1986) commented that,

The potential benefits derived by people with disabilities who participate in socially integrated leisure are twofold. Firstly, there are those benefits which derive from the internalised perception that individuals have about themselves. These include : the development of a healthy self concept (Hutchison & Lord, 1979; Schlein & Ray, 1988; McAvoy et al., 1987); feelings of greater self esteem and personal worth (Crilley, 1994; McCain, 1989); improved autonomy with nondisabled peers and improved confidence in approaching new situations (Hutchison & Lord, 1979; Schlein & Ray, 1988; McAvoy et al., 1987; McCain, 1989); increased goal setting abilities (Hutchison & Lord, 1979; Schlein & Ray, 1988; McAvoy et al., 1987); significant improvements in personal attitudes and general behaviour (Austin, 1987); increased cognitive skills (Odom et al., 1986); the realisation of ones full potential (Hearst, 1987; Hawkins and Freeman, 1993); the feeling of freedom and control (Thompson, 1990; Iso-Ahola, 1980; Witt & Ellis, 1989 Kurtz & Propst, 1991; Iso-Ahola, 1993); feelings of greater independence (Crilley, 1994; McCain, 1989); channels for self expression and improved quality of life (Schlein & Ray, 1988); and greater perceived competence (Iso-Ahola, 1980; Hedrick, 1985; Searle et al, 1995; Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1977).

Secondly, there are a number of benefits related to the externalised perception held by social agents about the individual. These include : feelings of companionship and interdependence and a sense of community (Thompson,1990); greater community acceptance (Lomax & Wong, 1992); greater acceptance within social groups and increased awareness of one’s environment (Hutchison & Lord, 1979; Schlein & Ray, 1988; McAvoy et al., 1987); appropriate responses to peer aggression, increased social cognitive skills and improved communication skills (Odom et al., 1986); improved social behaviour and relationships (Crilley, 1994) and successful adjustment and integration into the community (Hearst, 1987; Hawkins & Freeman, 1993).

Austin’s (1987) study of young boys with disabilities in an integrated residential camp setting, substantiated many benefits, and showed significant improvements in self esteem levels, relationships with others, personal and social behaviour and general behaviour and attitudes. Similarly, Edwards and Smith’s (1989) examination of social interaction in integrated residential camp settings found that there was a significant reduction in the incidence of inappropriate social interaction between children with disabilities and their non-disabled peers, and that children with disabilities were more likely to develop appropriate social, cognitive and communication skills. Hedrick (1985) also found that adolescents in an integrated wheelchair tennis program experienced improved self perception of their physical competence as a result of participation. Therefore, these research studies suggest that socially integrated leisure participation can be highly beneficial for people with disabilities.

While physically active leisure pursuits such as camping in the outdoor, athletics and other physical sports have been shown to significantly contribute to the social integration of those with intellectual, sensory and mild physical disabilities, it is important to recognise that, many "people by the nature of their disability are often prevented from competing or participating with able bodied people" (Roarty, 1986, p.11).

Additional research conducted by Hedrick (1986) into the effect of integrating peers with, and without disabilities through instructional tennis programs found that during the initial stages of integrated participation, subjects without disabilities perceived their disabled peers to be less competent than themselves. As a consequence, it is important to investigate the potential of an activity which while facilitating socially integrated leisure intervention, delivers a successful experience for people, with and without high physical support needs.

According to Roarty (1985), many people with disabilities enjoy playing computer games, painting, playing a musical instrument, communicating, playing chess and gambling, all of which are considered to be passive leisure activities. This conclusion was also supported by research studies conducted by Rosen and Burchard (1990), and Crapps, Langone and Swaim (1985) who both found that the majority of the leisure activities engaged in by people with disabilities tended to be passive in nature and home based. Lockwood and Lockwood (1991) found that watching television, going to the movies or theatre, and attending social activities with family and friends were amongst the most frequently engaged leisure activities of people with high support needs. Hanley (1996) also identified listening to music (35%), watching television (35%), going to the movies or drive in (26.8%), reading (16.9%), arts and crafts (14.2%), and playing computer games (12.6%) to be among the most frequently engaged leisure activities of people with disabilities. Similarly an unpublished study by Liverton (1996) of a small sample of Australians and New Zealanders with neuromuscular disorders (ie. a group with high support needs) found physically passive leisure activities such as spectating sport (50%), playing computer games (41%), listening to music (34%), watching movies (31%), watching television (25%), gambling (18%), and the use of computer applications other than games (15%) to be amongst the most highly favoured of leisure activities.

These findings suggest that many people with high support needs are unable to engage in physically active leisure pursuits with able bodied peers, and as a result of their level of disability prefer to engage in physically passive leisure activities. Thus it seems important to investigate the effect of one of the cited passive leisure activities for facilitating social integration, computer game play as a catalyst for facilitating socially integrated leisure experiences.

Several authors have identified that the playing of computer games is one of the most important passive leisure activities frequently engaged in by people with disabilities (Roarty, 1985; Liverton, 1996; Hanley, 1996). An unpublished study by Liverton (1996), he found that over 70% of people in his study between the ages of 15 and 30 years with a neuromuscular disorder, preferred playing computer games to fishing in the outdoors. In addition, approximately 40% of people with high support needs regarded playing computer games to be one of their most favoured leisure activities, with all participating at least once a week, either alone (80%) or with friends (50%) (Liverton, 1996).

Whilst the findings of these studies suggest that computer game play is popular with many people with high support needs, unless able bodied people also seek the same leisure experiences, computer game play does not have the same potential as a facilitator of social integration. Therefore it is important to examine the findings of leisure participation studies to ascertain if computer games play are also popular with the able bodied populations.

According to paediatricians from the Frazier Rehabilitation Centre (USA), all children are inherently attracted to and highly motivated by computer games, especially those which occur in virtual reality settings (Klein et al., 1996). McClure (1985) found, in an attitudinal study of adolescents and older adults that younger players enjoyed playing computer games and were more likely to have home access to a personal computer than older adults. From an Australia wide perspective, the National Recreation Participation Survey (1991) found that 11% (n=2103) of the sample, that is subjects aged 15 years and over, played computer games (Veal, 1993). In addition, a national telephone survey conducted by A.G.B. McNair (1996) concluded that 41% (n=2055) of the sample, that is subjects aged 18 years and over, had access to a personal computer in their own homes.

To highlight the magnitude of computer game usage, in 1993 the worldwide computer game market was valued at an estimated 10 billion U.S. dollars (Jolivalt, 1994 cited in Samuel, 1996). Of that figure, the U.S.A market alone accounted for 5.3 billion dollars. In the same year, it was estimated that approximately 50 million households in the U.S.A, and 7 million households in France were equipped with a computer game machine. This equates to approximately one in three families with children in each of these nations being equipped for computer game play. In addition, children from the U.S.A. who own a computer game machine on average play one and a half hours a day (Jolivalt, 1994 cited in Samuel, 1996).

Collectively these findings suggest that computer game play is a popular leisure activity which has strong catalytic potential for the fostering of socially integrated leisure participation between people with and without disabilities. However, unless both parties stand to benefit on a personal and social level from engaging in computer game play, shared enthusiasm for an activity is insufficient reason for it to be used as a catalyst.

According to Galbally (1990) providing the utilisation of any form of technology serves as a catalyst for greater community integration and equitable leisure, education and employment opportunities. In particular, recent advances in computer and communication based technology presents a great opportunity for people with disabilities to attain equal access to all lifestyle opportunities (Langer, 1985). Hedbring (1985) and Progner (1995) also claimed the importance of computer technology in the facilitation of social interaction of people with disabilities.

Based on several years of direct observation and work with people who have profound learning and multiple disabilities, Pronger (1995) noted that feelings of success and challenge have often been exhibited through the playful application of computers. Hedbring (1985) supported these observations stating that advances in computer hardware, software, communication and input devices have enabled many children with disabilities to interact more fully with their social environment. Durkin (1995) regarded computer game play to be a highly active, interactive and involving social activity which can be shared by adults, children and families alike. Computer game play should be viewed as an enthusiastic contest through which a sought goal can be accomplished rather than a highly competitive and addictive activity (Durkin, 1995). Although the findings of some research studies have suggested that computer game play incites violent or aggressive behaviour amongst children (Kinder & Page, cited in Samuel,1996), other research findings have suggested that computer game play can also contribute to the alleviation of stress and violence (Prezeau cited in Samuel,1996).

To substantiate the benefits of computer technology based play for people with and without disabilities, several authors (Hedbring,1985; Morlock, Yando & Nigolean, 1985; Mitchel, 1985; Elliot, 1987; Braun & Giroux, 1989; Pronger, 1995) claimed a range of social and individual benefits. In terms of research on the social benefits of computer play applications, increased social interaction emerged as the most important outcome. Both Elliot's (1987) study of pre-school children and Progner's (1995) research with children with disabilities, found that playing problem-solving computer games acted as an excellent catalyst for the elements of socially interactive behaviour such as talking, sharing and co-operation. Mitchel’s (1985, cited in Braun & Giroux, 1989) study found that increased family ties and social interaction can be attributed to playing computer games. Research conducted on adolescent computer game players by Morlock, Yando and Nigolean (1985) and, Braun and Giroux (1989) also supported the argument that frequent game play can be attributed to the opportunity to participate and compete with others. In addition, Prezeau (1994, cited in Samuel, 1996) has observed, by means of the communicative networking of teenage computer game players, that social reintegration occurred for many who had previously moved to the fringes of society, that is individuals who had demonstrated behaviour of an anti-social nature.

In addition to facilitating social benefits, the interactive nature of computer technology also contributes to the benefits associated with solitary play experiences. Consequently, increased cognitive competence, independence and personal satisfaction have emerged as individual benefits. A research study by Morlock, Yando and Nigolean (1985) revealed that an important motive for solitary play is to master complex games. Braun and Giroux (1989) stated that computer games, "promote tremendous mental exertion in a sort of perpetual cognitive motor gymnastics" (p.100). Thus, according to Elliot (1987) and Progner (1995), a significant outcome of solitary computer game play is increased cognitive competence. In addition, Barnes (1980, cited in Elliot, 1987) found that pre school children who engage in solitary computer game play exhibited a greater desire for individual achievement, independence and personal satisfaction.

Based on the findings of these research studies, and comments from several authors, participating in computer game play can be highly beneficial for people with high support needs, both on a personal and social level. The playing of computer games may be regarded as an appropriate catalyst for the facilitation of socially integrated leisure participation.

This literature review has argued that the leisure socialisation process is a major factor in determining the perceptions held by individuals about their ability to competently perform a leisure task, control their participatory environment and their ensuing level of leisure involvement. In the case of those who have experienced the effects of social deprivation and the wounding practices such as people with high physical support needs, it is important to present them with the opportunity to restore or raise these perceptions about their leisure competence and control. Of the limited opportunities available to this group, computer based play applications has been identified as one of the most highly valued and beneficial leisure activities. Considering that able bodied people also seek similar experiences, integrated computer game play is likely to have the catalytic properties necessary for the restoration of perceived competence and control levels for people with high support needs. In an effort to substantiate the direct effect of computer game play upon both group’s levels of leisure competence and control however, an empirical study was conducted to ascertain any improved benefits.

Yuker, H. (1977) Attitudes of the general public toward handicapped individuals awareness papers. Washington D.C. White House Conference On Handicapped Persons ., pp.93-105